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A Mission Record of the California Indians, AL Kroeber, University of California Publications in American Anthropology and Ethnology, volume 8, number 1, May 28, 1908

San Diego

They have a great desire to assemble at the ceremony regarding a bird called vulture [Gavilan]. The ceremony begins with a search anxiously made for the bird, and they invite one another to seek it. This arises from the fact that there are at the mission certain keen neophytes, who, however, are lazy when it comes to work, such as gathering the seeds on which they live. Desiring to have what they can feast with, these have made use of the opportunity of hunting the said bird in order to seduce the more simpleminded ones. They tell them that the bird is a person, who can free them from their enemies and bestow upon them whatever they ask of him. However false the belief, they hold to it with great pertinacity, wherefore they cherish the bird with as much care as the best mother could show for her son. As soon as they have captured it, they bring it the best of what they have obtained in the hunt and in their food gathering. When it is well-nourished, and grown, they kill it, and for its funeral they burn it. While it is in the bonfire, those who have assembled offer to it seeds, beads, and whatever they esteem most. In the following year they search for another vulture, and do the same with it. The means which have been found for separating them from these follies is to set some good Indians to watch, and to chastise severely and in public those who gather for the occasion.

XXXXX

… Their method of doctoring is this. When they know that someone is sick, the patient goes to the cusiyay or his relatives called him. This one takes in his mouth a stick or piece of wood or skin. He turns to the part of the body which is in pain and begins to draw and suck it. When he removes his mouth, he shows to the patient that he has been carrying it, persuading him that it was this which hurt him. With this the patient remains much calmed and contented.

San Luis Rey

We have not observed any other idolatry among these Indians than that connected with certain birds which they call azuts, which really are a kind of very large vulture. At the right time, while still small, they take them from the nest (according to what they say are never more than two) and he who has captured them presents them with many carabanas to the chief of the village. The chief raises them with much attention and care until they are grown up, when, being a good size, the Indians make their great festival with the following ceremonies.

The night before the festival they put the azuts or vultures in the middle of a large circle of themselves. While they dance and sing a very miste song and while old men and old women are blowing out towards all points of the compass, and making a thousand strange faces and grimaces, they very slowly killed the bird. When they are dead, they extinguish the fire and all break out in wails, shouts, and outcries, as if they were crazy, waving firebrands and striking blows as if they were furious, in such a way as to cause horror and confusion. After a considerable space of time during which this extravagance lasts, they again light (atizar) the fire. They skin the birds and throw their flesh on the fire. Meanwhile they begin to sing again, and with somewhat more suavity. They keep the feathers of the bird with much escorra and veneration until the following day, when they make a sort of skirt of them. This skirt they put on a boy during the days that the ceremony lasts. Wearing this skirt, he dances in the middle of a great circle of Indians, who make turns (dan vueltas, make short excursions) in time to the measure to which the boy is dancing in the center. They make this dance at intervals, and other boys who have been assigned to this take the place of the first boy. After the ceremony the chief of the village keeps the skirts with great veneration or a species of idolatry. We made the most careful efforts to ascertain the purpose of the ritual, but we have never been able to extract anything else than that thus their ancestors made it.

In order to win in their games of obligations (empeño) they drink the liquid which they call mani, made from the root of toloache pounded and mixed with water. This drink renders them inebriated, and at times they give forth what they have in the stomach. In the state of intelligence from which they depart with this nonsense, they say that because the other fasted and drank more.

These Indians do not use any sort of unusual drink, other than that made from toloache or mani. This drink does them so much damage, that if they drink a quantity, and do not vomit, they die in their intoxication, foaming at the mouth.

San Fernando

The foods which they use are acorns; pinenuts; chia (seeds of sage), called pasill in their language; islay, called chamiso by them; and numberless others. Of meat they eat deer, coyote, antelope, jackrabbit, rabbit, ground squirrel, rat, dog, all birds, moles (topos), snakes and rattlesnakes; and those of the coast are fond of all kinds of fish, especially whale.

The musical instruments which they use are a flute of elder, certain little sticks and whistles of deer bones.

Nowadays they do not burn the dead as they did at the beginning of the conquest, but they still put seeds with them at burial.

When an unconverted Indian dies, they make a deep hole for him. Into this they put a pot, a basket, an otter skin, and some two or three pesos worth of beads, above these the dead body, and this they cover with earth. Then they immediately give notice to all the villages of the district, that all, young, old,and children, are to paint for at general feast. In this feast every kind of seeds and meat is served, and the chief commands all most rigorously never to name the deceased, in order that he may not come to annoy them (arrastrarlos). Note: all should arrive weeping. At the end they burn the house and everything that the deceased possessed.

Santa Ynes

When the rancherias were still inhabited by unconverted Indians, there could be seen in various places bunches of feathers or plumes attached to sticks, which might be called their idol temples (adoratorios). There they cast seeds and beads in order to obtain good harvests of acorns and other seeds which the fields produce of themselves, and which were their daily nourishment.

They neither knew or used any other musical instrument than a tube of wood resembling a flute, open at both ends and producing a buzzing quite disagreeable to hear; also a whistle (pito) of a limb bone of some bird.

San Luis Obispo

The Indians of each settlement or village have cemeteries marked out with boards or stones. They also have songs and ceremonies for burying the dead. They make a distribution of beads to all who have some come together to assist in bringing the body to the grave. There is one, he who raises it on his back, who has for his particular duty the obligation of opening the grave. I have not been able to ascertain what their songs mean in our language

San Antonio

From their native condition they still preserve a flute which is played like the dulce. It is entirely open from top to bottom, and is five palms in length. Others are not more than about three palms. It produces eight tones (puntos) perfectly. They play various tunes (tocatas), nearly all in one measure, most of them merry. These flutes have eleven [sic] stops; some more, and some less. They have another musical instrument, a string instrument, which consists of a wooden bow to which a string of sinew is bound, producing a note. They use no other instruments. In singing they raise and lower the voice to seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, and octaves. They never sing in parts, except that when many sing together some go an octave higher than the rest. Of their songs most are merry, but some are somewhat mistes in parts. In all these songs they do not make any statement (proposicion), but only use fluent words, naming birds, places of their country, and so on.

San Carlos

There is a custom among the men of entering daily a subterranean oven which is called temescal. Into this they bring fire. When it is sufficiently heated, they go in undressed. Then they sweat profusely, so that when they come out they look as if they had been bathing. It is known that this is very beneficial to them. For some time the [sweat houses] were forbidden, and many itches, tumors, and other epidemics were found among the men. On the [sweat houses] being given back to them, hardly a man with the itch could be discovered, and this is a disease common among the women and children, who do not use such sweat baths. The women who have recently given birth employ another method of sweating. They make a hole inside of the house, put wood into it, light this, and put many heavy stones upon it. When the stones are hot, they cover them with much green verdure which makes a sort of mattress. The woman who has given birth lies down on this with the baby. The mother sweats much and the child is kept warm. They do this for six or seven days, and then are as agile as if they had not given birth, and this although their broths and foods are very poor.

XXXXX

The kind of idolatry which is been found among these natives is that they sometimes smoke, blowing the smoke to the sun, the moon, and to certain people who they believe live in the sky; and with this they say: “Here goes this smoke in order that you will give me good weather tomorrow.” Thus also of the seeds which they gather and of which they make pinole or flour. Of these they throw a handful to the sun, the moon, or the sky saying: “I send you this so that another year you will give me great abundance.” Thus they recognize in the sun and the moon influences bearing upon their necessities, and recognize also that in the sky there is another people which sends them what they wish, and for this reason they offer them flour, seeds, and tobacco smoke.

Santa Cruz

Their dances are most insipid. They gather in a circle and without moving from the spot bend their bodies. They move their feet and make many contortions to the sound of their disagreeable voices, with which they do not form articulate words.

There are some among them, evil minded old men, who instill them with a panic fear towards the demon whom they regard as the author of all evil. That he may not trouble them, they make them believe that they must place a little of the flour which they eat, or any other of their foods, on this stone or in that log in such and such a place. For the same purpose they sometimes hold secret dances at night, always without the knowledge of the fathers. It is known that at night the adult men alone gather in a field or wood. In the middle they place a tall stick crowned with a bundle of tobacco leaves, or branches of trees or other plants. At the foot of the stick they put their foods and glass beads. They prepare for the dance, tornandose their bodies and faces. When they are all gathered, the old man whom they look up to as their master or soothsayer goes out to give ear to the commands of the devil. Returning after a short time, he imparts to the poor innocents, not what he op [sic] of the father of lies, but what his own perversity and malice suggest to him. Thereupon they proceed in their dance, which they continue until day.

A Mission Record of the California Indians, AL Kroeber, University of California Publications in American Anthropology and Ethnology, volume 8, number 1, May 28, 1908

 

San Diego

They have a great desire to assemble at the ceremony regarding a bird called vulture [Gavilan]. The ceremony begins with a search anxiously made for the bird, and they invite one another to seek it. This arises from the fact that there are at the mission certain keen neophytes, who, however, are lazy when it comes to work, such as gathering the seeds on which they live. Desiring to have what they can feast with, these have made use of the opportunity of hunting the said bird in order to seduce the more simpleminded ones. They tell them that the bird is a person, who can free them from their enemies and bestow upon them whatever they ask of him. However false the belief, they hold to it with great pertinacity, wherefore they cherish the bird with as much care as the best mother could show for her son. As soon as they have captured it, they bring it the best of what they have obtained in the hunt and in their food gathering. When it is well-nourished, and grown, they kill it, and for its funeral they burn it. While it is in the bonfire, those who have assembled offer to it seeds, beads, and whatever they esteem most. In the following year they search for another vulture, and do the same with it. The means which have been found for separating them from these follies is to set some good Indians to watch, and to chastise severely and in public those who gather for the occasion.

XXXXX

… Their method of doctoring is this. When they know that someone is sick, the patient goes to the cusiyay or his relatives called him. This one takes in his mouth a stick or piece of wood or skin. He turns to the part of the body which is in pain and begins to draw and suck it. When he removes his mouth, he shows to the patient that he has been carrying it, persuading him that it was this which hurt him. With this the patient remains much calmed and contented.

 

San Luis Rey

We have not observed any other idolatry among these Indians than that connected with certain birds which they call azuts, which really are a kind of very large vulture. At the right time, while still small, they take them from the nest (according to what they say are never more than two) and he who has captured them presents them with many carabanas to the chief of the village. The chief raises them with much attention and care until they are grown up, when, being a good size, the Indians make their great festival with the following ceremonies.

The night before the festival they put the azuts or vultures in the middle of a large circle of themselves. While they dance and sing a very miste song and while old men and old women are blowing out towards all points of the compass, and making a thousand strange faces and grimaces, they very slowly killed the bird. When they are dead, they extinguish the fire and all break out in wails, shouts, and outcries, as if they were crazy, waving firebrands and striking blows as if they were furious, in such a way as to cause horror and confusion. After a considerable space of time during which this extravagance lasts, they again light (atizar) the fire. They skin the birds and throw their flesh on the fire. Meanwhile they begin to sing again, and with somewhat more suavity. They keep the feathers of the bird with much escorra and veneration until the following day, when they make a sort of skirt of them. This skirt they put on a boy during the days that the ceremony lasts. Wearing this skirt, he dances in the middle of a great circle of Indians, who make turns (dan vueltas, make short excursions) in time to the measure to which the boy is dancing in the center. They make this dance at intervals, and other boys who have been assigned to this take the place of the first boy. After the ceremony the chief of the village keeps the skirts with great veneration or a species of idolatry. We made the most careful efforts to ascertain the purpose of the ritual, but we have never been able to extract anything else than that thus their ancestors made it.

In order to win in their games of obligations (empeño) they drink the liquid which they call mani, made from the root of toloache pounded and mixed with water. This drink renders them inebriated, and at times they give forth what they have in the stomach. In the state of intelligence from which they depart with this nonsense, they say that because the other fasted and drank more.

These Indians do not use any sort of unusual drink, other than that made from toloache or mani. This drink does them so much damage, that if they drink a quantity, and do not vomit, they die in their intoxication, foaming at the mouth.

 

San Fernando

The foods which they use are acorns; pinenuts; chia (seeds of sage), called pasill in their language; islay, called chamiso by them; and numberless others. Of meat they eat deer, coyote, antelope, jackrabbit, rabbit, ground squirrel, rat, dog, all birds, moles (topos), snakes and rattlesnakes; and those of the coast are fond of all kinds of fish, especially whale.

The musical instruments which they use are a flute of elder, certain little sticks and whistles of deer bones.

Nowadays they do not burn the dead as they did at the beginning of the conquest, but they still put seeds with them at burial.

When an unconverted Indian dies, they make a deep hole for him. Into this they put a pot, a basket, an otter skin, and some two or three pesos worth of beads, above these the dead body, and this they cover with earth. Then they immediately give notice to all the villages of the district, that all, young, old,and children, are to paint for at general feast. In this feast every kind of seeds and meat is served, and the chief commands all most rigorously never to name the deceased, in order that he may not come to annoy them (arrastrarlos). Note: all should arrive weeping. At the end they burn the house and everything that the deceased possessed.

 

Santa Ynes

When the rancherias were still inhabited by unconverted Indians, there could be seen in various places bunches of feathers or plumes attached to sticks, which might be called their idol temples (adoratorios). There they cast seeds and beads in order to obtain good harvests of acorns and other seeds which the fields produce of themselves, and which were their daily nourishment.

They neither knew or used any other musical instrument than a tube of wood resembling a flute, open at both ends and producing a buzzing quite disagreeable to hear; also a whistle (pito) of a limb bone of some bird.

 

San Luis Obispo

The Indians of each settlement or village have cemeteries marked out with boards or stones. They also have songs and ceremonies for burying the dead. They make a distribution of beads to all who have some come together to assist in bringing the body to the grave. There is one, he who raises it on his back, who has for his particular duty the obligation of opening the grave. I have not been able to ascertain what their songs mean in our language

 

San Antonio

From their native condition they still preserve a flute which is played like the dulce. It is entirely open from top to bottom, and is five palms in length. Others are not more than about three palms. It produces eight tones (puntos) perfectly. They play various tunes (tocatas), nearly all in one measure, most of them merry. These flutes have eleven [sic] stops; some more, and some less. They have another musical instrument, a string instrument, which consists of a wooden bow to which a string of sinew is bound, producing a note. They use no other instruments. In singing they raise and lower the voice to seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, and octaves. They never sing in parts, except that when many sing together some go an octave higher than the rest. Of their songs most are merry, but some are somewhat mistes in parts. In all these songs they do not make any statement (proposicion), but only use fluent words, naming birds, places of their country, and so on.

 

San Carlos

There is a custom among the men of entering daily a subterranean oven which is called temescal. Into this they bring fire. When it is sufficiently heated, they go in undressed. Then they sweat profusely, so that when they come out they look as if they had been bathing. It is known that this is very beneficial to them. For some time the [sweat houses] were forbidden, and many itches, tumors, and other epidemics were found among the men. On the [sweat houses] being given back to them, hardly a man with the itch could be discovered, and this is a disease common among the women and children, who do not use such sweat baths. The women who have recently given birth employ another method of sweating. They make a hole inside of the house, put wood into it, light this, and put many heavy stones upon it. When the stones are hot, they cover them with much green verdure which makes a sort of mattress. The woman who has given birth lies down on this with the baby. The mother sweats much and the child is kept warm. They do this for six or seven days, and then are as agile as if they had not given birth, and this although their broths and foods are very poor.

XXXXX

The kind of idolatry which is been found among these natives is that they sometimes smoke, blowing the smoke to the sun, the moon, and to certain people who they believe live in the sky; and with this they say: “Here goes this smoke in order that you will give me good weather tomorrow.” Thus also of the seeds which they gather and of which they make pinole or flour. Of these they throw a handful to the sun, the moon, or the sky saying: “I send you this so that another year you will give me great abundance.” Thus they recognize in the sun and the moon influences bearing upon their necessities, and recognize also that in the sky there is another people which sends them what they wish, and for this reason they offer them flour, seeds, and tobacco smoke.

 

Santa Cruz

Their dances are most insipid. They gather in a circle and without moving from the spot bend their bodies. They move their feet and make many contortions to the sound of their disagreeable voices, with which they do not form articulate words.

There are some among them, evil minded old men, who instill them with a panic fear towards the demon whom they regard as the author of all evil. That he may not trouble them, they make them believe that they must place a little of the flour which they eat, or any other of their foods, on this stone or in that log in such and such a place. For the same purpose they sometimes hold secret dances at night, always without the knowledge of the fathers. It is known that at night the adult men alone gather in a field or wood. In the middle they place a tall stick crowned with a bundle of tobacco leaves, or branches of trees or other plants. At the foot of the stick they put their foods and glass beads. They prepare for the dance, tornandose their bodies and faces. When they are all gathered, the old man whom they look up to as their master or soothsayer goes out to give ear to the commands of the devil. Returning after a short time, he imparts to the poor innocents, not what he op [sic] of the father of lies, but what his own perversity and malice suggest to him. Thereupon they proceed in their dance, which they continue until day.

Mission San Carlos Borromeo (Carmelo) by Fr. Zephyrin Engelhardt

Mission Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, 1934

1. Seven tribes lived at this mission. They are the Excelen and Egeac, Rumsen, SargentRuc, Saconeños, Guachirron, CalendaRuc. The first two are from the interior have the same language or dialect which is wholly distinct from the other five; the latter speak the same tongue among themselves. At the beginning of the conquest the missionaries experienced difficulty in getting them to assemble for religious services, agricultural pursuits or any other duty whatsoever. Today they have succeeded in making them associate together. This exclusiveness and slight friendly feeling were the reasons that, in paganism, they ordinarily lived in a state of war. The troops tried to counteract this condition from the beginning. Since all have become Christianized, they recognize the advantages of peace in which they live.

2. There are two dialects among the seven tribes; the one is Rumsen, the other is Excelen; they differ entirely. Take an example in Rumsen: “jurriguing igest oyhlaguan eje uit maigin,” in Excelen: “Egenoch lalucuuimos talogpami ege salegua lottes, takeyapami lagalachis.” Translated these two sentences mean: “Men who are good bowman are esteemed and well-liked.” But whilst they speak these dialects, the majority sufficiently understand and speak Spanish; the minority, though they can barely speak it, understand it somewhat. They have progressed so much in the Castilian tongue because the inhabitants of the presidio are near, as also the seaport. Communication with the Europeans is frequent; with them they play, buy, exchange, sell wood and other little things; and intercourse is one of the ways best suited to learn any language.

3. Generally speaking the menfolk love their wives. Whilst pagan conditions held sway, unfaithfulness of women led to many wars and killing; wherefore self-restraint was observed. Since Christianity has been accepted by them the missionaries are sorely put to it to bring about a reconciliation between husband and wife who have become mutually angry and who are childless. Admonitions and punishments avail nothing in getting them reunited if they are living in concubinage. The parents love their children dearly; but the latter, upon reaching maturity, care little for their fathers and mothers. The girls indeed are accustomed to assist their mothers during their lifetime. The parents give their children practically no education; they rather offer a bad example. At most they instruct them in the use of the bow and arrow; above all the boys learn idleness, for it is characteristic of the Indian to shun labor. The women and girls naturally are occupied with preparing food. The men possess aptness for agriculture and the mechanical arts; but since they naturally abhor work an overseer must be put in charge.

4 & 5. The conquest has made them recognize the superiority of the gente de razon. No distinction is made by them between European and American; they respect, honor and serve all alike. Because they are timid and pusillanimous, when handled tenderly and compassionately, v.g., like a child or one to be pitied, they prove themselves useful in many ways. This article also includes the answer to the fifth question.

6 & 7. We have not discovered even an attempt, let alone a trace of any style of reading or writing. They are greatly astonished at seeing how the Fathers communicate by letters or read the missal. We have instructed boys and employ them in all church functions for the time being; on account of their limited mental ability they do not fix the mind upon their reading and so have not advanced in it. Nevertheless, the written characters help them to spell and to understand and speak Spanish. This article likewise contains the answer to the seventh.

8. The moral virtues manifested by them are charitableness and a readiness to give food to anyone and sympathy with those in distress. But they possess these virtues after the fashion of mock colors, which fade at the first wetting. In truth, at the first sign of anger, the Indians forget sympathy, etc.

9. Very few superstitious rites are in evidence, and these are rather the vagaries of old men and women. Of these, one gets the reputation of being a healer; the sick person calls and permits him to suck the ailing part, and soon the healer extracts a stone which he had hidden in his mouth and says: “Behold this stone has been the cause of your illness; this stone was within you!” They receive pay for this deception, but the patient does not recover. Others sing and dance in front of the sick person and for the service they are rewarded. Other old women maintain that they are the ones who give growth to the fruits and seeds and on this account they are favored with gifts. Should the year happen to be a barren one, the old woman pretends that she is angry and makes it known that she did not care to give harvests. Thus they see themselves compelled to favor her with more gifts to appease her anger so that she may give seed in the following year. If the harvest chances to be abundant the old woman is showered with joyful praises and all are pleased with her. Thanks be to God, however, these excesses are disappearing; the children as well as adolescents maintain that God alone produces the seeds and fruits and all other things.

10. They are advancing day by day in a more complete understanding of the truths of religion since they receive religious instructions in their own tongue under the guidance of the missionaries and the Fr. Presidente of the Missions: according to the statutes of the royal decree, relative to places not yet formed into parishes.

11, 18, 19 & 27. This sort of idolatry is practiced by them: at times they blow smoke to the sun, moon and some beings whom they fancy dwell in the skies. These words are uttered during the act of blowing: “Aye, this wisp of smoke is blown that you may give me a good (day) tomorrow.” In like manner, they take pinole or flour of the seeds which they have gathered; and throwing a handful to the sun, moon or the heavens they say: “I send you this that you may give me greater abundance next year.” Thus the sun and moon are looked upon as affecting their needs; likewise those beings in the skies who send what may be necessary. For this reason flour, seeds, and tobacco smoke are sent heavenwards. Now, however, these practices have been discontinued because the old folks who performed them have died. Due to the mode of their ancestors’ lives, a wild carefree existence appeals to them rather than civilization (en Poblado), and so they seek permission to live thus three weeks out of the year, and they rove about wheresoever they desire. At the conclusion of the harvesting of the seeds, the chiefs of each tribe are accustomed to give a feast, at which they eat, sing, and dance. We have asked them repeatedly if they have stories as to their origin. To this question all replied that they do not know. This ignorance should cause no surprise in view of the fact that these natives consider it the greatest disrespect to talk about their dead parents and relatives. Thus a boy whose parents have been buried when he was very small, has no one to tell him the names of his dead father, grandfather or kinfolk. In the course of a quarrel, for greater vituporation, they exclaim: “Your father is dead!” and the flame of their fury grows greater. Thus the memory of their ancestors has been allowed to lapse into oblivion. When someone dies, his clothing and belongings are burned. If the possessions be an animal, such as hens, dogs, a horse, they are killed; if they be plants, they are uprooted. Upon being asked the reason for such a procedure, the answer is to obliterate the memory of the deceased. The 18^th, 19^th, and 27th answers are included in this article.

12. Baby chicks wax more and more golden and each day become more pleasing to the sight during that period when they receive heat from the mother hen. The Indians fare similarly while they find themselves under the instructions of the missionaries. Daily progress has been made in moral and political and enlightenment. Whereas twenty years ago the Fathers and veteran troops were compelled to make them attend Mass and pray; nor would they submit either to subjection or government; today they assist at holy Mass, pray, and frequent the sacraments and wish to die as Christians. They acknowledge the superiority of government and give every evidence of it. These changes are admitted by them and they maintain that now it is different and they are a changed people; though, they declare that two decades ago they often fled to the mountains, ate mares and deserved to be punished continually.

13. Matrimonial alliances are brought about in this fashion: The father, mother and nearest kin declare that they have a marriageable son or daughter for so and so. Should the parents and nearest kin of both sides reach an agreement, the son or daughter is asked if he or she wishes to marry so-and-so. Given an affirmative answer they go at once to see the kinfolks and the intended. If the latter consents the contract is concluded then and there, and the groom has the privilege of eating in the house of the bride and he sees to it that he makes her a gift of a blanket or some beads. But should the son or daughter not care to contract matrimony with the one whom their parents designate; and should their parents force or persuade them to marry or consent it happens that soon after the marriage they hate one another, separate and it is rare that they can be reunited. Worst of all, they live in concubinage; ordinarily this is an incurable evil in the Indian.

14. Natural remedies are used. They bind fast and aching leg, arms, etc., and say that so the pain is alleviated somewhat. One of the tribe knows of root, a remedy against bloody dysentery. This root is beaten to powder and this is given with a little water. Some have been cured and highly praise the remedy. It has not been possible to learn the name of the root. The Indian, who knows, does not care to tell where the root is found, because in this way he gains a livelihood and so guards his secret. Recently we ordered him to bring it from the country and we saw that it is a root of a plant, large and tender, like the parsnip. For bloodletting, a frequent practice, they gather very jagged flints; with these they puncture the aching part, be it head, body, abdomen, chest, etc.; they continue to scrape the wound so that much blood comes forth. This operation works wonders with them. Being plethoric, they suffer intensely in that part of the body which extends from the armpits to the hip bone (costado) and from the copious vomiting of blood. These attacks usually take place during three seasons of the year. They are subject to very many other kinds of maladies at all times; the result is that this mission is reduced in number by eight or ten every year. They are frequently and habitually indisposed because little attention is paid to their health by them. They eat, until they can eat no more, of meat and other victuals of the gente de razon. Wild foods, such as acorns and various other seeds, seaweed, oysters, etc., are esteemed all the more; they gorge themselves and so bring about ailments. It is futile to exhort them to moderation because of their principal: “Is there much to eat, let us eat much; when we are sick we will not eat.” For emetics they use seawater, as also sap from the head of a plant like saffron, called by them “amole.” There is much of it in this region and it serves the purpose of soap. It is also a purgative and they drink it freely. The men have the daily custom of entering an underground oven, known as the “temescal.” A fire is built within and when the oven has become heated sufficiently, the men enter undressed. They perspire so freely that, upon coming out they appear to have been bathing. It is understood that this is very beneficial for them. For a time the attempt was made to stop them, and as a result skin diseases and boils and other ailments appeared among the men. When they betook themselves to the “temescal” again, scarcely a man was found afflicted with the itch, a disease common to the women and children who do not make use of such baths. The women, but recently observed delivered, employ another method of perspiring. They dig a hole in their huts, put wood therein and set fire to it. Many stones weighing about sixteen ounces (pound weight) are put into the fire. When hot, these are covered with green herbs, which make a sort of mattress. The woman who was recently delivered lies upon this together with the baby. The mother sweats freely and the baby is kept warm. This is done for a period of six or seven days, and thereafter they are as vigorous as if they had not given birth; this is the case although their broths and foods are poor indeed. The hot springs have never been made use of by them. Gossip had it that these springs would kill the people because they had seen, at a distance, birds, wolves, bears, and other animals die from contact with the water. Small wonder at this, because the water is very hot. Now, however, they noticed that the gente de razon temper with cold water and bathe therein. They do likewise, drink it as well and experience the good effects; but the mischief is that they return to their evil habits, so the ailment returns.

15. Calendars are not used by these people. They speak only of the year as from corn to corn, from seed to seed, so that when it lacked four months in the harvest they would say: “There are still four moons until the acorns, etc.” They neither know their ages nor how many years elapsed since the death of their grandfather, father or mother. These and similar questions were extremely displeasing to them and are so even to the present. They remembered some epochs, as when wars were waged, when the sea was very angry; (This according to their explanation and from signs which have been discovered must have been a terrible earthquake), when a ship arrived, etc.

16. As heathens they would eat whenever they desired; now, as Christians, they are given three meals: morning and night, atole, which is wheat and barley toasted and ground, dissolved in water and boiled. At noon their meal consists of peas, avas, pottage pulse beans, etc.; but they are free to eat in their huts, and so they eat day and night, and there is no way of making them use moderation. They eat rats, squirrels, moles, shellfish and all living things, except frogs, toads, owls, which are the only animals of which they entertain fear.

17. Water was the only kind of drink among them, but it did not have to be pure. Now, however, they know how to drink wine, whiskey and mescal. They take to getting tipsy, even intoxicated, by chewing tobacco; and this is very harmful for their chests.

18. This answer has been taken care of in article 11.

19. Article 11 contains the answer to this question.

20. As pagans the method of burial was to dig a large hole or pit; they threw the corpse therein, and, if it happened to be a mother with a very young child, as yet un-weaned, it was buried with its dead mother, in case the father or relatives were not able to look after the child. All the relatives threw beads and seeds upon the dead in token of their love for the deceased. As Christians, they are buried according to the ritual of the Church. Nevertheless, in secret, they cling to the method of the time when they were heathens. As a sign of mourning, the father, mother, child, husband or wife, or brother and sisters cut off their hair; if shears are lacking they burn it bit by bit. Moreover, they strew ashes over their entire bodies, weep bitterly, fast, and the old women smear their faces with pitch. Since the effects of this remain for months, they seem to be Ethiopians. It is also their habit to go to the mountains to drown their sorrows.

21. Contracts are sacred to them at all times, non-fulfillment makes for loss of caste so that afterwards none care to deal with anyone who does not keep his word. Giving, lending and bargaining are done as amongst brothers and not strangers. Article 24 also treats of the natives’ mode of life.

22. The old men maintain that duplicity or lies were not current among them. But now associating with Christians, they rarely tell the truth and deceit takes precedence. Though they be known to be guilty, so brazen is their duplicity that it does not make them blush. One must believe that though pusillanimous and timid, fear it is which protects and aids them in denying that which is evident.

23. The prevailing vices are stealing which they call “taking,” no more; immorality which is destroying them; idleness which they crave in the extreme. It is the dominance of these vices which make them gluttons, drinkers and gamblers and hinders graces, given them as Christians, from acts of the love of God and holy things. They did not have so many vices as pagans, because whoever practiced them paid often times with life itself. Idleness has held sway chiefly among the men. They are prone to anger, but cowardice restrains them; perhaps the punishments which they mete out among themselves also act as a check. Lasting feuds are due to a spirit of vindictiveness which does not permit forgetfullness of an injury done them. That which might be said under article 26 belongs here.

24. Inasmuch as these missions have been brought under control only recently, earnest responsibility has not been placed on individual shoulders. All work in common; all eat and dress from the communal stores. This is entirely under the supervision of the missionaries. They are instructed to learn how to live as rational individuals. Besides the communal fields, a parcel of land for a kitchen garden is allotted to some to get them accustomed to this kind of labor. But the net result is that on some day the woman in a fit of anger roots out the shoots of corn, squash, etc., saying that she has planted them. Her husband does likewise. Therefore, in these matters, they behave like children of eight or nine years, who are as yet not of constant or steady disposition.

25. This article has its answers and number 23.

26. That which might be said in answer here has been put in article 23.

27. Article 11 contains the response to this number.

28. The entire savage population of this mission has become Christianized. No more information could be unearthed as to sacrifices than which has been quoted in article 11; as to burials no more than that which is been explained in paragraph 20.

29. These natives are not known to be consumed by cupidity, either as pagans or as Christians. They are a disinterested people. He is considered a rich man who possesses a kerchief for his head, though he be otherwise unclothed. The goods of the Mission would be squandered in a week were it not for the vigilance of the Fathers.

30. The prominent Indians are the captains or kings. There is one for each tribe. They command obedience and respect during their lifetime. This office is hereditary, or in default of an heir by direct descent, it goes to the closest relative. This chief alone among the pagans could retain or desert a plurality of wives, (unmarried women), but if he had children by one of them, she is held in higher esteem and he lived permanently with her. He retained the privilege of living with unmarried women whenever he so desired. The entire tribe rendered service (tribute) to him in the days when they were pagans as well as now that they are Christians. He led the van in battle, supplied the bows and arrows and encouraged his people. He was, as a rule, a very good archer. Even today they show more respect and submission to their chiefs than to the alcaldes who have been placed over them for their advancement as citizens. They (the chiefs) remain known at all times as governors of their tribe, even in the event that old age forces them to give the chieftainship over to a successor. They wear no distinctive mark of any kind. In the days of paganism, a cloak made from rabbit skins usually distinguished them. The missionaries strive to humor them, because the contentment of the Indian depends on this.

31. Brotherly love prevails among these natives. It is their great delight to be of mutual help, now collecting seeds from the ranges, now lending serviceable things. This holds good of the men as well as the women. But if they become somewhat angry, charity ceases: they imitate a child of eight or nine years.

32. Musical instruments of native design are very crude. They consist of a hollow tube from an alder tree, this tube is a copy of the dulcet flute, but the imitation has not been very successful. They also use the split stick, like a distaff. It is used to beat time for their chants, which have the same tone, whether joyous or sad. For example, being in a merry mood, they chant and dance, while the names of the seeds or achievements are proclaimed; e.g., thus: “Acorn, a. a. acorn,” “Much seed a. a. much seed.” Should the chant happen to be one of vengeance or ill feeling which is very rife and from time to time from which many feuds arise, they sing and dance to the same tones, shouting something disparaging of each tribe with whom they are at war. For example: “Thief e. e. thief.” “Maimed one e. e. maimed one,” or other names and defects which they know of each tribe or personal enemy. The missionaries attempt to admonish and chastise them for this reason that they may not continue in disputes or feuds. And so their chants and dances are devoid of anything pleasant or melodious. They have been instructed in church music and plain song and acquit themselves creditably in all functions.

33. At the present time the natives of this mission are so backward in reading and writing that there is no hope of progress, however much we attempt to instruct them in knowledge and letters, as has been noted in article 6. They are adepts in the use of bow and arrow, though deeds of prowess are related of none of their forebears, as has been explained in article 11. In the event that one of these natives slays a bear, lion or other wild beast, the hunter extracts a tooth, tusk or fang and suspends it around his neck in token of an heroic feat and bravery and thereafter he is respected.

34. They possess a confused idea of eternity. It was their belief that after death they go to the west (where the sun sets); there a man received the dead; at times these returned to their relatives and visited them in their dreams; they were much affrighted at these visits. This is the love of the elders,. Now, however, they no longer converse of these matters. No trace could be discovered of an idea of reward or punishment final judgment glory, purgatory or hell.

35. For the present, clothing of the following description is procured: for the men, a blanket, a garment of printed cotton or shirt of wool and “sendal,” commonly called breachclout; for the women, a blanket, cotton chemise and woolen skirt; in this way all are clothed somewhat decently. Then, too, the habiliments of the gente de razon are given to some, because they look after the property of the Mission. If all valued wearing apparel much more would be given them, and in a short time we would have them going about as civilized beings. But they (that is the men) are not concerned whether they go about with or without clothing, inasmuch as they gamble away their wearing apparel; nothing is worn out of that which is given them; it is sold, exchanged, gambled or given away, then another garment older or newer is sought. They do, however, enter the church and Fathers’ dwelling decently apparelled, because otherwise they would be reprimanded. Among the property of the Mission our lambs, not yet a year old, from which sufficient wool is sheared; this the Indians themselves spin and weave and a suit of clothes is given them each year.

All this information has been obtained with all possible clearness and exactness. The attempt has been made to put forth a true description of this nature folk. It has not been our aim to make the natives seem lacking in understanding, although some of the paragraphs may create the impression of trying to belittle their mental ability. We merely wish to show that they are exceedingly lacking in civilization; even as new shoots which have but lately sprung out of the earth, so these people, placed in new soil, have given few signs of progress, though the attempt is being made to water them with the dew and warmth of teaching and example. Even though they listen, comprehend, and obey but feebly or like children in matters of life and health, nevertheless, in the hour of death all wish to die is Christians. And in that critical moment some have given manifestations which have been of much consolation to us.

Mission San Carlos Borromeo (Carmelo) by Fr. Zephyrin Engelhardt

Mission Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, 1934

 

1. Seven tribes lived at this mission. They are the Excelen and Egeac, Rumsen, SargentRuc, Saconeños, Guachirron, CalendaRuc. The first two are from the interior have the same language or dialect which is wholly distinct from the other five; the latter speak the same tongue among themselves. At the beginning of the conquest the missionaries experienced difficulty in getting them to assemble for religious services, agricultural pursuits or any other duty whatsoever. Today they have succeeded in making them associate together. This exclusiveness and slight friendly feeling were the reasons that, in paganism, they ordinarily lived in a state of war. The troops tried to counteract this condition from the beginning. Since all have become Christianized, they recognize the advantages of peace in which they live.

2. There are two dialects among the seven tribes; the one is Rumsen, the other is Excelen; they differ entirely. Take an example in Rumsen: “jurriguing igest oyhlaguan eje uit maigin,” in Excelen: “Egenoch lalucuuimos talogpami ege salegua lottes, takeyapami lagalachis.” Translated these two sentences mean: “Men who are good bowman are esteemed and well-liked.” But whilst they speak these dialects, the majority sufficiently understand and speak Spanish; the minority, though they can barely speak it, understand it somewhat. They have progressed so much in the Castilian tongue because the inhabitants of the presidio are near, as also the seaport. Communication with the Europeans is frequent; with them they play, buy, exchange, sell wood and other little things; and intercourse is one of the ways best suited to learn any language.

3. Generally speaking the menfolk love their wives. Whilst pagan conditions held sway, unfaithfulness of women led to many wars and killing; wherefore self-restraint was observed. Since Christianity has been accepted by them the missionaries are sorely put to it to bring about a reconciliation between husband and wife who have become mutually angry and who are childless. Admonitions and punishments avail nothing in getting them reunited if they are living in concubinage. The parents love their children dearly; but the latter, upon reaching maturity, care little for their fathers and mothers. The girls indeed are accustomed to assist their mothers during their lifetime. The parents give their children practically no education; they rather offer a bad example. At most they instruct them in the use of the bow and arrow; above all the boys learn idleness, for it is characteristic of the Indian to shun labor. The women and girls naturally are occupied with preparing food. The men possess aptness for agriculture and the mechanical arts; but since they naturally abhor work an overseer must be put in charge.

4 & 5. The conquest has made them recognize the superiority of the gente de razon. No distinction is made by them between European and American; they respect, honor and serve all alike. Because they are timid and pusillanimous, when handled tenderly and compassionately, v.g., like a child or one to be pitied, they prove themselves useful in many ways. This article also includes the answer to the fifth question.

6 & 7. We have not discovered even an attempt, let alone a trace of any style of reading or writing. They are greatly astonished at seeing how the Fathers communicate by letters or read the missal. We have instructed boys and employ them in all church functions for the time being; on account of their limited mental ability they do not fix the mind upon their reading and so have not advanced in it. Nevertheless, the written characters help them to spell and to understand and speak Spanish. This article likewise contains the answer to the seventh.

8. The moral virtues manifested by them are charitableness and a readiness to give food to anyone and sympathy with those in distress. But they possess these virtues after the fashion of mock colors, which fade at the first wetting. In truth, at the first sign of anger, the Indians forget sympathy, etc.

9. Very few superstitious rites are in evidence, and these are rather the vagaries of old men and women. Of these, one gets the reputation of being a healer; the sick person calls and permits him to suck the ailing part, and soon the healer extracts a stone which he had hidden in his mouth and says: “Behold this stone has been the cause of your illness; this stone was within you!” They receive pay for this deception, but the patient does not recover. Others sing and dance in front of the sick person and for the service they are rewarded. Other old women maintain that they are the ones who give growth to the fruits and seeds and on this account they are favored with gifts. Should the year happen to be a barren one, the old woman pretends that she is angry and makes it known that she did not care to give harvests. Thus they see themselves compelled to favor her with more gifts to appease her anger so that she may give seed in the following year. If the harvest chances to be abundant the old woman is showered with joyful praises and all are pleased with her. Thanks be to God, however, these excesses are disappearing; the children as well as adolescents maintain that God alone produces the seeds and fruits and all other things.

10. They are advancing day by day in a more complete understanding of the truths of religion since they receive religious instructions in their own tongue under the guidance of the missionaries and the Fr. Presidente of the Missions: according to the statutes of the royal decree, relative to places not yet formed into parishes.

11, 18, 19 & 27. This sort of idolatry is practiced by them: at times they blow smoke to the sun, moon and some beings whom they fancy dwell in the skies. These words are uttered during the act of blowing: “Aye, this wisp of smoke is blown that you may give me a good (day) tomorrow.” In like manner, they take pinole or flour of the seeds which they have gathered; and throwing a handful to the sun, moon or the heavens they say: “I send you this that you may give me greater abundance next year.” Thus the sun and moon are looked upon as affecting their needs; likewise those beings in the skies who send what may be necessary. For this reason flour, seeds, and tobacco smoke are sent heavenwards. Now, however, these practices have been discontinued because the old folks who performed them have died. Due to the mode of their ancestors’ lives, a wild carefree existence appeals to them rather than civilization (en Poblado), and so they seek permission to live thus three weeks out of the year, and they rove about wheresoever they desire. At the conclusion of the harvesting of the seeds, the chiefs of each tribe are accustomed to give a feast, at which they eat, sing, and dance. We have asked them repeatedly if they have stories as to their origin. To this question all replied that they do not know. This ignorance should cause no surprise in view of the fact that these natives consider it the greatest disrespect to talk about their dead parents and relatives. Thus a boy whose parents have been buried when he was very small, has no one to tell him the names of his dead father, grandfather or kinfolk. In the course of a quarrel, for greater vituporation, they exclaim: “Your father is dead!” and the flame of their fury grows greater. Thus the memory of their ancestors has been allowed to lapse into oblivion. When someone dies, his clothing and belongings are burned. If the possessions be an animal, such as hens, dogs, a horse, they are killed; if they be plants, they are uprooted. Upon being asked the reason for such a procedure, the answer is to obliterate the memory of the deceased. The 18^th, 19^th, and 27th answers are included in this article.

12. Baby chicks wax more and more golden and each day become more pleasing to the sight during that period when they receive heat from the mother hen. The Indians fare similarly while they find themselves under the instructions of the missionaries. Daily progress has been made in moral and political and enlightenment. Whereas twenty years ago the Fathers and veteran troops were compelled to make them attend Mass and pray; nor would they submit either to subjection or government; today they assist at holy Mass, pray, and frequent the sacraments and wish to die as Christians. They acknowledge the superiority of government and give every evidence of it. These changes are admitted by them and they maintain that now it is different and they are a changed people; though, they declare that two decades ago they often fled to the mountains, ate mares and deserved to be punished continually.

13. Matrimonial alliances are brought about in this fashion: The father, mother and nearest kin declare that they have a marriageable son or daughter for so and so. Should the parents and nearest kin of both sides reach an agreement, the son or daughter is asked if he or she wishes to marry so-and-so. Given an affirmative answer they go at once to see the kinfolks and the intended. If the latter consents the contract is concluded then and there, and the groom has the privilege of eating in the house of the bride and he sees to it that he makes her a gift of a blanket or some beads. But should the son or daughter not care to contract matrimony with the one whom their parents designate; and should their parents force or persuade them to marry or consent it happens that soon after the marriage they hate one another, separate and it is rare that they can be reunited. Worst of all, they live in concubinage; ordinarily this is an incurable evil in the Indian.

14. Natural remedies are used. They bind fast and aching leg, arms, etc., and say that so the pain is alleviated somewhat. One of the tribe knows of root, a remedy against bloody dysentery. This root is beaten to powder and this is given with a little water. Some have been cured and highly praise the remedy. It has not been possible to learn the name of the root. The Indian, who knows, does not care to tell where the root is found, because in this way he gains a livelihood and so guards his secret. Recently we ordered him to bring it from the country and we saw that it is a root of a plant, large and tender, like the parsnip. For bloodletting, a frequent practice, they gather very jagged flints; with these they puncture the aching part, be it head, body, abdomen, chest, etc.; they continue to scrape the wound so that much blood comes forth. This operation works wonders with them. Being plethoric, they suffer intensely in that part of the body which extends from the armpits to the hip bone (costado) and from the copious vomiting of blood. These attacks usually take place during three seasons of the year. They are subject to very many other kinds of maladies at all times; the result is that this mission is reduced in number by eight or ten every year. They are frequently and habitually indisposed because little attention is paid to their health by them. They eat, until they can eat no more, of meat and other victuals of the gente de razon. Wild foods, such as acorns and various other seeds, seaweed, oysters, etc., are esteemed all the more; they gorge themselves and so bring about ailments. It is futile to exhort them to moderation because of their principal: “Is there much to eat, let us eat much; when we are sick we will not eat.” For emetics they use seawater, as also sap from the head of a plant like saffron, called by them “amole.” There is much of it in this region and it serves the purpose of soap. It is also a purgative and they drink it freely. The men have the daily custom of entering an underground oven, known as the “temescal.” A fire is built within and when the oven has become heated sufficiently, the men enter undressed. They perspire so freely that, upon coming out they appear to have been bathing. It is understood that this is very beneficial for them. For a time the attempt was made to stop them, and as a result skin diseases and boils and other ailments appeared among the men. When they betook themselves to the “temescal” again, scarcely a man was found afflicted with the itch, a disease common to the women and children who do not make use of such baths. The women, but recently observed delivered, employ another method of perspiring. They dig a hole in their huts, put wood therein and set fire to it. Many stones weighing about sixteen ounces (pound weight) are put into the fire. When hot, these are covered with green herbs, which make a sort of mattress. The woman who was recently delivered lies upon this together with the baby. The mother sweats freely and the baby is kept warm. This is done for a period of six or seven days, and thereafter they are as vigorous as if they had not given birth; this is the case although their broths and foods are poor indeed. The hot springs have never been made use of by them. Gossip had it that these springs would kill the people because they had seen, at a distance, birds, wolves, bears, and other animals die from contact with the water. Small wonder at this, because the water is very hot. Now, however, they noticed that the gente de razon temper with cold water and bathe therein. They do likewise, drink it as well and experience the good effects; but the mischief is that they return to their evil habits, so the ailment returns.

15. Calendars are not used by these people. They speak only of the year as from corn to corn, from seed to seed, so that when it lacked four months in the harvest they would say: “There are still four moons until the acorns, etc.” They neither know their ages nor how many years elapsed since the death of their grandfather, father or mother. These and similar questions were extremely displeasing to them and are so even to the present. They remembered some epochs, as when wars were waged, when the sea was very angry; (This according to their explanation and from signs which have been discovered must have been a terrible earthquake), when a ship arrived, etc.

16. As heathens they would eat whenever they desired; now, as Christians, they are given three meals: morning and night, atole, which is wheat and barley toasted and ground, dissolved in water and boiled. At noon their meal consists of peas, avas, pottage pulse beans, etc.; but they are free to eat in their huts, and so they eat day and night, and there is no way of making them use moderation. They eat rats, squirrels, moles, shellfish and all living things, except frogs, toads, owls, which are the only animals of which they entertain fear.

17. Water was the only kind of drink among them, but it did not have to be pure. Now, however, they know how to drink wine, whiskey and mescal. They take to getting tipsy, even intoxicated, by chewing tobacco; and this is very harmful for their chests.

18. This answer has been taken care of in article 11.

19. Article 11 contains the answer to this question.

20. As pagans the method of burial was to dig a large hole or pit; they threw the corpse therein, and, if it happened to be a mother with a very young child, as yet un-weaned, it was buried with its dead mother, in case the father or relatives were not able to look after the child. All the relatives threw beads and seeds upon the dead in token of their love for the deceased. As Christians, they are buried according to the ritual of the Church. Nevertheless, in secret, they cling to the method of the time when they were heathens. As a sign of mourning, the father, mother, child, husband or wife, or brother and sisters cut off their hair; if shears are lacking they burn it bit by bit. Moreover, they strew ashes over their entire bodies, weep bitterly, fast, and the old women smear their faces with pitch. Since the effects of this remain for months, they seem to be Ethiopians. It is also their habit to go to the mountains to drown their sorrows.

21. Contracts are sacred to them at all times, non-fulfillment makes for loss of caste so that afterwards none care to deal with anyone who does not keep his word. Giving, lending and bargaining are done as amongst brothers and not strangers. Article 24 also treats of the natives’ mode of life.

22. The old men maintain that duplicity or lies were not current among them. But now associating with Christians, they rarely tell the truth and deceit takes precedence. Though they be known to be guilty, so brazen is their duplicity that it does not make them blush. One must believe that though pusillanimous and timid, fear it is which protects and aids them in denying that which is evident.

23. The prevailing vices are stealing which they call “taking,” no more; immorality which is destroying them; idleness which they crave in the extreme. It is the dominance of these vices which make them gluttons, drinkers and gamblers and hinders graces, given them as Christians, from acts of the love of God and holy things. They did not have so many vices as pagans, because whoever practiced them paid often times with life itself. Idleness has held sway chiefly among the men. They are prone to anger, but cowardice restrains them; perhaps the punishments which they mete out among themselves also act as a check. Lasting feuds are due to a spirit of vindictiveness which does not permit forgetfullness of an injury done them. That which might be said under article 26 belongs here.

24. Inasmuch as these missions have been brought under control only recently, earnest responsibility has not been placed on individual shoulders. All work in common; all eat and dress from the communal stores. This is entirely under the supervision of the missionaries. They are instructed to learn how to live as rational individuals. Besides the communal fields, a parcel of land for a kitchen garden is allotted to some to get them accustomed to this kind of labor. But the net result is that on some day the woman in a fit of anger roots out the shoots of corn, squash, etc., saying that she has planted them. Her husband does likewise. Therefore, in these matters, they behave like children of eight or nine years, who are as yet not of constant or steady disposition.

25. This article has its answers and number 23.

26. That which might be said in answer here has been put in article 23.

27. Article 11 contains the response to this number.

28. The entire savage population of this mission has become Christianized. No more information could be unearthed as to sacrifices than which has been quoted in article 11; as to burials no more than that which is been explained in paragraph 20.

29. These natives are not known to be consumed by cupidity, either as pagans or as Christians. They are a disinterested people. He is considered a rich man who possesses a kerchief for his head, though he be otherwise unclothed. The goods of the Mission would be squandered in a week were it not for the vigilance of the Fathers.

30. The prominent Indians are the captains or kings. There is one for each tribe. They command obedience and respect during their lifetime. This office is hereditary, or in default of an heir by direct descent, it goes to the closest relative. This chief alone among the pagans could retain or desert a plurality of wives, (unmarried women), but if he had children by one of them, she is held in higher esteem and he lived permanently with her. He retained the privilege of living with unmarried women whenever he so desired. The entire tribe rendered service (tribute) to him in the days when they were pagans as well as now that they are Christians. He led the van in battle, supplied the bows and arrows and encouraged his people. He was, as a rule, a very good archer. Even today they show more respect and submission to their chiefs than to the alcaldes who have been placed over them for their advancement as citizens. They (the chiefs) remain known at all times as governors of their tribe, even in the event that old age forces them to give the chieftainship over to a successor. They wear no distinctive mark of any kind. In the days of paganism, a cloak made from rabbit skins usually distinguished them. The missionaries strive to humor them, because the contentment of the Indian depends on this.

31. Brotherly love prevails among these natives. It is their great delight to be of mutual help, now collecting seeds from the ranges, now lending serviceable things. This holds good of the men as well as the women. But if they become somewhat angry, charity ceases: they imitate a child of eight or nine years.

32. Musical instruments of native design are very crude. They consist of a hollow tube from an alder tree, this tube is a copy of the dulcet flute, but the imitation has not been very successful. They also use the split stick, like a distaff. It is used to beat time for their chants, which have the same tone, whether joyous or sad. For example, being in a merry mood, they chant and dance, while the names of the seeds or achievements are proclaimed; e.g., thus: “Acorn, a. a. acorn,” “Much seed a. a. much seed.” Should the chant happen to be one of vengeance or ill feeling which is very rife and from time to time from which many feuds arise, they sing and dance to the same tones, shouting something disparaging of each tribe with whom they are at war. For example: “Thief e. e. thief.” “Maimed one e. e. maimed one,” or other names and defects which they know of each tribe or personal enemy. The missionaries attempt to admonish and chastise them for this reason that they may not continue in disputes or feuds. And so their chants and dances are devoid of anything pleasant or melodious. They have been instructed in church music and plain song and acquit themselves creditably in all functions.

33. At the present time the natives of this mission are so backward in reading and writing that there is no hope of progress, however much we attempt to instruct them in knowledge and letters, as has been noted in article 6. They are adepts in the use of bow and arrow, though deeds of prowess are related of none of their forebears, as has been explained in article 11. In the event that one of these natives slays a bear, lion or other wild beast, the hunter extracts a tooth, tusk or fang and suspends it around his neck in token of an heroic feat and bravery and thereafter he is respected.

34. They possess a confused idea of eternity. It was their belief that after death they go to the west (where the sun sets); there a man received the dead; at times these returned to their relatives and visited them in their dreams; they were much affrighted at these visits. This is the love of the elders,. Now, however, they no longer converse of these matters. No trace could be discovered of an idea of reward or punishment final judgment glory, purgatory or hell.

35. For the present, clothing of the following description is procured: for the men, a blanket, a garment of printed cotton or shirt of wool and “sendal,” commonly called breachclout; for the women, a blanket, cotton chemise and woolen skirt; in this way all are clothed somewhat decently. Then, too, the habiliments of the gente de razon are given to some, because they look after the property of the Mission. If all valued wearing apparel much more would be given them, and in a short time we would have them going about as civilized beings. But they (that is the men) are not concerned whether they go about with or without clothing, inasmuch as they gamble away their wearing apparel; nothing is worn out of that which is given them; it is sold, exchanged, gambled or given away, then another garment older or newer is sought. They do, however, enter the church and Fathers’ dwelling decently apparelled, because otherwise they would be reprimanded. Among the property of the Mission our lambs, not yet a year old, from which sufficient wool is sheared; this the Indians themselves spin and weave and a suit of clothes is given them each year.

All this information has been obtained with all possible clearness and exactness. The attempt has been made to put forth a true description of this nature folk. It has not been our aim to make the natives seem lacking in understanding, although some of the paragraphs may create the impression of trying to belittle their mental ability. We merely wish to show that they are exceedingly lacking in civilization; even as new shoots which have but lately sprung out of the earth, so these people, placed in new soil, have given few signs of progress, though the attempt is being made to water them with the dew and warmth of teaching and example. Even though they listen, comprehend, and obey but feebly or like children in matters of life and health, nevertheless, in the hour of death all wish to die is Christians. And in that critical moment some have given manifestations which have been of much consolation to us.

 

San Buenaventura by Zephyrin Englehardt

Mission Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, 1930

During the term of Fr. Presidente José Señan’s rule, the interrogatorio or list of questions, proposed by the Spanish government, reached California. The Fathers at each mission answered the questions as far as their respective establishment was concerned, and then they forwarded the results to the Fr. Presidente.

1. At this mission live only Indians and a few whites.

2. The whites hail generally from Sonora, Sinaloa, and Nueva Viscaya. The Indians are natives of the neighboring rancherias, excepting those who were born of Indian parents at the mission. The Indians do not know their original habitat.

3. The Indians here speak their own idiom. Some converse in Spanish, but imperfectly.

4. In their pagan state, the Indians generally care little for their wives. They love their children but give them little or no education. It is different at the Mission, however, where, besides religion, industry and agriculture is taught them.

5. Europeans and Americans are not regarded as differing from other whites. To the Indians they are all without exception gente de razon.

6. Particular affection or aversion is not noticeable.

7. One or the other of the neophytes, more out of curiosity than utility, manifest some inclination to learn to read and write. With charcoal, some of the boys at times draw characters on the walls, as white boys will do. In paganism they have no idea of it. Only in the sand or on tree trunks will they draw figures of animals.

8. There is no way of getting the Indians to devote themselves more diligently to Spanish.

9. The most conspicuous virtues are patience in time of suffering, especially during illness. They are also hospitable.

10. The pagans, especially the old men, cling to many of their superstitions. For instance, a fisherman will not eat of the fish or of the venison, rabbits, hares, etc., which he caught, believing he will in that case catch no more. In order to win at a play of chance, he must fast for some days; and if he loses, he imagines that the winner fasted more. The husband may not touch his wife until the child can stand alone on its feet, otherwise he shall have no more children. When the wife is delivered of a child, the husband must abstain from meat for some time, lest the child die. Instruction is gradually making the recent converts disregard such foolish observances.

11. We have a catechism in the idiom of the Indians of the Mission and also a catechism in Castilian. Instructions are given in both languages alternately.

12. No inclination to idolatry is observed in our neophytes; nor can it be said that in savagery they practiced any formal idolatry. In the vicinity of their rancherias and on the mountain, they used to have some places which they kept very clean, swept, and adorned with beautiful plumage put on poles. To these places they would go as to their sacred places. Here they would assemble in time of need and conduct a sort of pilgrimage. One of their number, in the name of all the rest, who observed profound silence, would pray for rain, offering an abundance of acorns, seeds, and wild fruits which constitute their daily sustenance. They would catch fish or kill deer in order that no bear might catch them or the bite of a rattlesnake might not afflict them. They would pray also for health and other good things. At the end of the supplication, they would, in their simplicity and crude veneration, offer beads, acorns, and various seeds, in order that they might be regarded with favor by the invisible one whom they pictured to themselves according to their rude notions, as the author and giver of rains, seeds, fruits, and other good things. The first part of this petition was always uniform. It was preceded by a salutation which in our language means as much as “Grand Captain or Captain of Captains, behold us and hear what we say.”

Some old men, pretending to be doctors, but being only graduated from the school of their own ignorance, simplicity, and rudeness, tell a long series of ridiculous fables regarding the creation of the world and its government. The boys and young folk take great delight in them and will even pay an old fellow to get him to recite his stories. Nevertheless, some neophytes having good sense and possessing true Christian sentiments frequently told me that they knew the foolishness of these stories; and when they saw the boys in such circles, one or more would not be wanting to instruct them, reminding them of what is true and certain; namely, that there is One who created all things and gave all things. This much is sure, the pagan people of this vicinity are well disposed and they have listened to us with attention or pleasure when we spoke to them of God, the Creator of heaven and earth and all things.

13. A great change for the better is observed, due to the teachings of the Gospel. For one thing, there is now peace where formerly there was constant war.

14. When our neophyte youths intend to marry, they offer to the bride and her parents some beads, an otter skin, a blanket, or some similar thing. Other tokens or service they do not offer. After they have presented themselves to the missionary and the examination, prescribed by the Council of Trent, proved that there is no impediment, the missionary marries them during a Nuptial Mass according to the Roman Ritual. Also in paganism they are wont to offer a present to the pretendita or to her parents, though not always. Some, naturally of a good and faithful disposition, will keep their matrimonial contract inviolate; but, generally speaking, it is almost incredible how readily they take and divorce wives, and how the wives themselves, in not a few cases, divorce their husbands, not regarding or understanding the marriage bond. Such is their rudeness and ignorance in this particular.

15. As far as possible, the missionaries see to it that in the Mission are not wanting the most ordinary medicines for their own necessities and those of the neophytes. The poor Indians do not understand curative powers. When one of them feels sick, he lies down near his beloved fire until he is almost roasted. Quacks administer some herbs, roots, and bark, but blindly without knowing their power or giving any reason. The quack’s father or some old man told him that such and such a grass or root was good, which suffices for their keeping many a secret and receiving beads. They say that some are cured with that herb and the sick person so believes, forgetting that the greater part of the infirmities are not grave and that nature herself provides the cure. They have a way of compensating themselves for bloodletting, inasmuch as they cut themselves with a sharp stone and then suck the blood. By the irritation it causes, this crude way of healing has some good effects, especially when applied to the delicate parts. They have various herbs to purge themselves; and as an emetic they would drink an abundance of water mixed with salt or sea water. For pains in the bones they apply the thermal waters, and use the same remedy against the itch and similar ailments. The most prevailing disease are the galico, consumption, and dysentery. These affllict them more forcibly in spring and autumn. The number of births does not correspond with that of deaths; for in some years there are three deaths to two births.

16. They recognize spring by the fresh growth of plants and by the sprouting of the grass. The season of the seeds tells them that summer is there. In the harvest of the acorns, their chief sustenance in paganism, they see the approach of autumn, while the rains and the cold weather are a sign that winter has come. In their dullness, they are ignorant of the calendar,. Though the language has distinct words for morning, noon, evening and night, the pagans, living to suit their fancy, do not understand anything about this as far as eating, working and resting is concerned. The neophytes are guided in everything by the Mission bell.

17. The Indians take no more than one meal a day, inasmuch as when they work they also eat, and at whatever hour of the night they might wake up and remember, they set to eating. At the Mission, there is morning prayer when the sun rises, at which time also holy mass is said. After sunrise they are given a ration of atole, and the same is given after the recital of the Doctrina in the evening. At noon, the meal consists of pozole made of wheat, corn, peas, and other vegetables. Every week they receive a ration of fresh beef, in sufficient amount, according to the means of the Mission. At this Mission, weekly, sixty, fifty, or at least forty five head of cattle are slaughtered. In seasons when the cattle are very fat, sixty head are slaughtered twice a week, in order to increase and sell the tallow and thereby procure the necessary goods. The large parts of the meat are taken in carts to the fields and burnt, since there is no one to collect them and there is plenty of fresh meat in the houses. In addition, they have in their homes supplies of acorns, chia, seeds, fruits, zacates, and other various wild eatables, all of which they do not overlook, being very fond of them. They eat also fish, mussels, ducks, geese, cranes, quail, hares, squirrels, rats, and other animals, which are to be had in abundance. On account of this hodgepodge of eatables, which they have in their homes and to their being like children who eat at all hours, it is hard to determine how much they eat every day.

18. They have not known fermented drinks and use only a concoction of wild tobacco, lime, and water, which, they assure us, brings them comfort; but if they drink it to excess, it intoxicates them and does them considerable harm.

19. The gentiles of this vicinity have not adored the sun nor the moon.

20. The Indians content themselves with the bow and arrow for self-defense and for the chase, and with the net for fishing. For the rest they think only of how to procure food. In consequence, all they know is how to fill the belly, dance, and play like children. It never strikes them in the least that there are in the world more people than those with whom they are acquainted in their rancherias. In like manner, they are not at all concerned as to who were their forefathers. Ignorance, stupidity, and supreme indifference in such matters are doubtless their heritage from a very early date.

21. In their pagan state, some were accustomed to bury their dead, while others would burn them on a huge pyre, accompanying the ceremony with loud wailing, relatives and friends stirring up the fire until the corpse was consumed. In burials, they would inter with the corpse some beads, skins of the otter or rabbit, or some other article that belonged to the deceased. Others would place a pole on the grave from which hung an oar, a net, a bowl, the head of a deer, or some other mark, to show in which exercise the deceased excelled. They manifest their grief by cutting their hair, covering themselves with ashes, and scratching and blackening the face, continuing their wailing for many days.

22,. They are quite faithful to their promises and in their bargains; but their words must be taken in a wider sense so far as relatives and friends are concerned; for it is well known that they are forgetful and do not at all, or at least very tardily, comply with their promises.

23. Their inclination to tell lies is great. This does not apply to our Indians, however. These know that it is wicked to lie; and even in their pagan state they knew that it is something to be shunned.

24^.. Their most dominant vice is idleness with all that attends it – incontinence and thievery. The women are quite industrious; but one or the other class are neophytes. Now they are beginning to hear the names of the virtues and of Religion; and our efforts to instruct them in the maxims thereof meet with happy results. Yet there are also sullen and stiffnecked individuals among them.

25. Their money is in the shape of beads and seeds, which they readily lend, without asking security. This was true of them also in paganism.

26. From the products of the field, the missionaries provide for those living in the community; otherwise they would go to the mountains, like children. Some have their little private gardens, in which they raise pumpkins, watermelons, sugar melons, corn, and other vegetables and grains, the missionaries encouraging them in this. In paganism they knew nothing of agriculture, but lived on acorns, seeds, and wild fruits.

27. They are not naturally inclined to anger or to cruelties. They had frequent wars to defend their wives and their little patches or collection of acorns and seeds. With them murder is the greatest injury, and they would seek revenge by taking the life of the murderer.

28. They never offered human sacrifices to the gods.

29. Already answered in the preceding and under numbers 12 and 21.

30. In community, the Indians are all equal, one having as much as the other.

31. There is no distinction among them in the mission, excepting the alcaldes and regidores who are elected annually and who act as foremen and overseers. In paganism, each rancheria had one or more captains who led the others in wars and feasts.

32. No personal services are rendered to anyone. All labor for and serve the Mission in various capacities for the common good.

33. They are now quite eager to sing and to play on the instruments, string as well as wind, and they easily learn by ear or by sight. In paganism they use only a flute like thing made of elderwood, as also a bone whistle, with which the players produce a shriek and violent trill, at the same time making strange and ridiculous contortions of the body. Their songs are weird, more adapted to arouse sadness than gladness.

34. There are Indians here who in paganism had not even an idea of letters or characters. Hence to catalog illustrious men from among them is out of the question.

35. They have some faint idea of the immortality of the soul, though it is coupled with a thousand puerilities. They know something also of reward and punishment, but temporary, affecting only this life. They imagine that after death the souls are transferred to a place of delights, where they are well received and where there will be an abundance of fish, and where they have plenty to eat, and will pass the time in play, dances, and amusements. Thoughts of Last Judgement, Heaven, Purgatory, and Hell never entered their minds.

36. The dress of the male neophyte consists of a short overall, called cotón, of a breach cloth, in place of breeches, and of a blanket. The women wear the cotón with a petticoat and blanket. All this clothing is made at the mission. The pagans know nothing of dress, except that women wear the hide of a deer or fringes of grass to meet the demands of natural decency. – Mission San Buenaventura, August 11, 1815. – Fr José Señan.

Hupa creation story – – Humboldt County

He Who is Lost to us Across the Ocean first appeared on the Klamath River. When he appeared there was a ringing noise like a bell. When he appeared burning pieces of wood fell from the sky. When he appeared there was another race of people who went across the ocean, never to be seen again. They were immortals. Some of these people were bad, but one in particular kept all the deer inside a mountain. The God went to him and told him he was hungry for venison. The bad man opened the door on the side of the mountain to get a deer. But the god watched and entered the mountain. His quiver and arrows grew a plant called wild ginger. The deer liked this and he enticed them to come out of the mountain so everyone could have something to eat. A selfish woman kept all the salmon in a pond all to herself. The god asked her for eels to eat and she got some. He next asked for some surf fish. She caught some in a net. The god dug a ditch and released all the salmon from the pond. The old woman followed them. She follows them as they migrate upriver to spawn. She appears as a yellow breasted flycatcher. The god next saw a blind old man carrying a heavy load. He offered to help carry the load but the strap which held it broke. It was a big load of sharp obsidian and it could’ve cut the god to pieces. The old man was in the habit of killing people this way. He felt around for the god but did not find him. The god then pushed the load onto the blind old man’s back and it fell and cut him to pieces. In this way the god killed a cannibal who ate people. Then the god found a bad man who was catching people with a hook. The god hooked the bad man and killed him. He got rid of another cannibal this way. Then he found a bad man with a seesaw. The man asked the god to sit on it and then let it go suddenly. The god jumped off in time but told the man to sit on the seesaw himself. The god let go of the seesaw, which was a sharp stone and it came down hard and killed the man. Then he found a blind old man who split a log. He tried to get the god to stand in the cleft in the log. He let it go suddenly, trying to kill him. He tried to find the dead god but could not because he had stepped out of the cleft. He told the blind old man to step into the cleft and let it spring shut on him. He tried to arrange for people to live forever. But the people did not like this, that is why people die. After he made the world a comfortable place he went across the ocean, never to be seen again. He is there today.

Ohlone creation story – – Monterey County

Eagle, Hummingbird and Coyote stood on top of a mountain after the world was created. Water rose up toward their feet. Eagle carried the other two away to a higher mountain until the water went down. Coyote went out to see if the world was dry. He called back that the world was dry. He checked at the river and found a beautiful girl. Eagle told him she was Coyote’s wife so that people could be raised again. The girl and Coyote married and the children became the forefathers of the different Indian tribes. Coyote gave people bows and arrows to hunt rabbits. He told them to eat acorn mush and bread. He told him to eat seafoods. Coyote thought he was smarter than everyone but Hummingbird was smarter. Coyote was jealous of him because of that he smashed Hummingbird but he came back to life. Coyote wondered how to kill Hummingbird. Some told him to eat him. He did but Hummingbird scratched his insides so he had let him out. Coyote told his wife about the animals in the ocean but he did not tell her about a frightful one. She came to the beach and the animal frightened her so much she fell over dead. Coyote carried her on his back and laid her by a fire and sang and danced three times. She came back to life. Coyote did things that were stingy and mean. He caught salmon and put them in the fire but told his children there was no salmon. He’d reach in and pull out a piece of it. His children thought he was eating fire. They wanted to also but Coyote told them not to, they would be burned.

Lake Miwok creation story – – Lake County

Hawk Chief complained to Coyote that there were no humans. Coyote became angry but he created people out of wood. He carved various types of wood, and stuck them in the ground around his house and danced. In the morning the people were there: Blue Jay, Deer, Dog etc. But the people couldn’t talk. He danced again and in the morning the people could talk. They complained about the fleas. Coyote said that he and his grandson would go away. Coyote called his wife, Frog Old Woman, and told her to get ready. He told the people that when they died they would come to his land. But only dead people. So Frog Old Woman, Hawk Chief and Coyote went away.

Miwok creation story – – Mariposa County

There were six different peoples who lived in this world before the coming of the Indians. The first of these people was just like the Indians and they existed until a cannibal giant, Ululiu came. He traveled the world with a sack on his back in which he put people to eat. Soon he had eaten nearly everybody. Ululiu could not be killed and unless he was shot through the heart which was in his heel. The people did not know this but they got together to discuss what to do. Fly found Ululiu asleep and bit him all over. Ululiu did not react until Fly bit him on the heel and he knew that there was where Ululiu’s heart was. Fly told the people. The people devised a plan: they placed six awls along the path that Ululiu walked on. One punctured his heel and he died. The second race of people was the bird people. A spirit named Yelelkin stole most of these people. The remainder left because the world was overrun with black ants. That was the end of that people. The third race were half human and half animal. These people traveled into the present and turned into the birds and animals. Raven, who was a great hunter, was one of them. Raven was originally white and he went to hunt deer and when he went to hunt deer they saw him. He smeared himself with charcoal which is why he is that way today. The fourth race was like the third, part human and animal. Skunk was the chief of this fourth race and he forced people to hunt for him but only fed them on acorn mush. He hunted by spraying his scent at the deer who ran away to where the people were hiding. They shot the deer. The people resented the way they were treated by Skunk and decided to kill him. They could not do it above ground because the scent would be released. So badger dug a hole, and filled it with hot coals. When Skunk ran over it he would fall in. They invited Skunk to a dance and praised him as he danced. He sank into the hole and tried to release his scent to no avail. He died and the people feasted on all the dried deer meat Skunk had hoarded. The people turned into animals. The fifth race disappeared, which is a mystery to this day. The sixth race came about when the earth was covered with water. Coyote told Frog he would create food and people. Frog said that they could not live without land. Coyote told Duck and Water Snake to dive to see if they could come up with some land. They failed but Frog came up with two handfuls of sand. Coyote scattered this about and created land. He planted food plants like pinenuts and acorns. He gathered six wise men. They said Coyote should create people immediately. He asked if they should have feet like his. Lizard said that they should have feet like his. Coyote agreed. He created people with five fingers like Lizard’s. Coyote told Frog, “You like the water so that’s where you’ll live.” He told each animal what form they would take and where they would live. Since then the world would be inhabited by people from there on out.

Mono creation story – – Madera County

In the beginning everything was water. Prairie Falcon and Crow surveyed it all from a log sticking up from the water. They decided to call Duck to make a world above the water. Prairie Falcon called and asked what number he dreamed. Duck said two but Prairie Falcon told him to dream for three days and in the dream to dive to the bottom and bring up some land. He dreamed and dove and died under the water, his body floating to the surface. Prairie Falcon brought him back to life but sent Coot down below to bring up some land. He died too and Prairie Falcon brought him back to life. This time he sent Grebe below. He reached the bottom and brought up some sand but he passed out of the dream state on the way up and died. Prairie Falcon brought them back to life and asked him if he had gotten any earth. But the sand had passed out of his hands. Prairie Falcon had found some sand under Grebe’s nails. He threw it in all the directions and this became the world. Things did not go right. Condor had a spring which he brought victims to and beheaded, the blood flowing into the spring. Condor built a fire under the spring to flood the world. He tried to flood Ground Squirrel’s house. Some of them escaped but he captured one and brought it to the spring where he put it aside while he took a drink. Condor’s daughter spoke to Ground Squirrel. “You must kill him or he will flood the world.”  Ground Squirrel cut off Condor’s head but it flooded the world, killing everybody in the world that Prairie Falcon and Crow created.

Maidu creation story – – Butte County

Originally it all was dark and covered with water. A raft, being Turtle, appeared. Earth Initiate descended on a rope of feathers onto the raft. Turtle wanted to know where Earth Initiate came from. “From above,” he said. Turtle asked if he could make some land and some people. Turtle said to tie a stone around his left arm and he would dive to get some land. Turtle dove and was gone for six years. When he came up he was covered with green slime and only a little earth was under his nails. The rest had washed away. Earth Initiate rolled it in his palms into a ball and put it on the raft. He turned to look at it three times and found it had grown large. When he looked the fourth time it had grown to the size of the world. Turtle asked if he would make light to end the perpetual darkness. Earth Initiate told his sister to come up and she was the sun. He told her which way to travel and the sun went down. Earth Initiate told his brother to come up. It was the moon. Then he called each of the stars by name and they came up. Earth Initiate made an oak tree with 12 kinds of acorns. Then the two of them set out to travel the world. Turtle couldn’t keep up. Earth Initiate made the birds, the trees and the animals. Then he said he would make people. From red clay he made two figures, a man and a woman. He lay them at each of his sides and lay down. The woman tickled him but he didn’t laugh. He put a piece of wood in the ground and it burst into flames. He called the man Kuksu and the woman Morning Star Woman. Coyote saw the man and the woman and asked how he had made them. He told Coyote and he said he would do it too. Coyote lay the man and the woman by his side and the woman tickled him and he laughed. Because of this the new creatures had glassy eyes. Earth Initiate told him he shouldn’t have laughed. Coyote lied and said that he didn’t. It was the first lie in the world. The earth filled with people. Earth Initiate came to Kuksu and told him to take the people to a lake. He said he would make him an old man. Kuksu gathered the people and took them to the lake where he turned into an old man and fell in. There was great turmoil in the water and when Kuksu reappeared he was a young man again. Earth Initiate told the people that when they grow old they should come to the lake and they would be made young again. Life went easily and well. Coyote said he would change that. He told the people there would be a mourning ceremony and they should burn property. The people didn’t know what he meant. He told the people to burn all the property on the poles that were erected. He said that there would be games. He said that to begin with there would be a foot race. Kuksu did not attend because he knew death was coming to the world. Rattlesnake said he knew what to do. He hid along the course of the foot race. Along came Coyote’s son and Rattlesnake bit him and he died. This was the first death. The people picked up Coyote’s son and brought him to Coyote. He began to cry. Everyone else cried too. These were the first tears. Coyote took his son to the lake and threw him in but nothing happened. On the fifth day Coyote went to Kuksu with four sacks of beads. He begged Kuksu to return his son to life. Kuksu lowered the body on a bearskin with the beads into a grave. He said that this is how things were to be done. And the world would be made over. The people were burning offerings to the dead when suddenly they all started speaking different languages. Earth Initiate told Kuksu what to do. Kuksu spoke to the people, for he could speak all the languages. He taught them to cook and hunt and gave them all the laws and set the dances and ceremonies. He sent the people to the four quarters of the world and that is how it is today.

Maidu creation story from Butte County

Originally all was dark and covered with water. A raft, being Turtle, appeared. Earth Initiate descended on a rope of feathers onto the raft. Turtle wanted to know where Earth Initiate came from. “From above,” he said. Turtle asked if he would make some land and some people. Turtle said to tie a stone around his left arm and he would dive to get some land. Turtle dived and was gone for six years. When he came up he was covered with green slime and only had little earth under his nails. The rest had washed away. Earth initiate rolled it in his palms into a ball and put it on the raft. He turned to look at it three times and found it had grown large. When he looked the fourth time it had grown to the size of the world. Turtle asked if he would make light to end the perpetual darkness. Earth Initiate told his sister to come up and she was the sun. He told her which way to travel and the sun went down. Earth Initiate told his brother to come up. It was the moon. Then he called each of the stars by name and they came up. Earth Initiate made an oak tree with 12 kinds of acorns. Then the two of them set out to travel the world. Turtle couldn’t keep up. Earth Initiate made the birds, the trees and the animals. Then he said he would make people. From red clay he made two figures, a man and a woman. He laid them at each of his sides and lay down. The woman tickled him but he didn’t laugh. He put a piece of wood in the ground and it burst into flames. He named the man Kuksu and the woman Morning Star Woman. Coyote saw the man and the woman and asked how he had made them. He told Coyote and he said he would do it too. Coyote laid the man and the woman by his side and the woman tickled him but he laughed. Because of this the new creatures had glassy eyes. Earth Initiate told him he shouldn’t have laughed. Coyote lied and said that he didn’t. It was the first lie in the world. The earth filled with people. Earth Initiate came to Kuksu and told him to take the people to a lake. He said he would make him an old man. Kuksu gathered the people and took them to the lake where he turned into an old man and fell in. There was a great turmoil in the water and when Kuksu reappeared he was a young man again. Earth Initiate told the people that when they grow old they should come to the lake and they would be made young again. Life went easy and well. Coyote said he would change that. He told the people there would be a mourning ceremony and they would burn property. The people didn’t know what he meant. He told the people to burn all the property on the poles that were erected. He said there would be games. He said to begin with a foot race. Kuksu did not attend because he knew death was coming to the world. Rattlesnake said he knew what to do. He hid along the course of the foot race. Along came Coyote’s son. Rattlesnake bit him and he died. This was the first death. People picked up Coyote’s son and brought him to Coyote who began to cry. Everyone else cried too. These were the first tears. Coyote took his son to the lake and threw him in but nothing happened. On the fifth day Coyote went to Kuksu with four sacks of beads. He begged Kuksu to return his son to life. Kuksu lowered the body on a bearskin with the beads. He said that this is how things were to be done. Then the world would be made over. The people were burning offerings to the dead when suddenly they all started speaking different languages. Earth Initiate told Kuksu what to do. Kuksu spoke to the people, for he could speak all the languages. He taught them to cook and hunt and gave them all their laws and set the dances and ceremonies. He sent the people to the four corners of the world and that is how it is today.